Osmosis Essay Essay Example

Osmosis Essay Paper Osmosis is a form of passive transport, and a specialised form of diffusion. It is the movement of water from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one, through a semipermeable membrane. Hence it is where water moves from a high to a low concentration. I will design an experiment to test this process on a typical example of osmosis effect on plant cells, taking as the sample, potato. It is through osmosis and the fluctuating levels of water in the cell that the concentrations of minerals in the plant are regulated. Expt. 1 Last year, I conducted two experiments in which dialysis tubing was used to simulate the semipermeable membrane. In the first experiment a knot was tied in one end of a length of soaked dialysis tubing and a pipette was used to half fill it with a strong glucose solution. The air bubbles were expelled and a knot was tied in the other end. At this point the tubing was flaccid (limp). When it was then placed in a test-tube full of distilled water, it became turgid (firm). [See diag.1] Expt. 2 In the second experiment red-dyed sugar solution was placed in a bell-shaped piece of apparatus, with a capillary tube off it and a cellulose film over the bottom [See diag.2]. This was then placed in a beaker full of distilled water and left for half an hour, by which time the level of water in the beaker had gone down, and red dye had moved up the capillary tube. The water in the beaker had not turned red. The experiment was then repeated with a stronger solution. The volume of water in the beaker decreased further; the dye went further up the capillary tube. We will write a custom essay sample on Osmosis Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Osmosis Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Osmosis Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer These two experiments clearly demonstrated that, while small water molecules pass through a semipermeable membrane, larger molecules (such as glucose) do not. This is why the water in the beaker did not turn red, while the red dye in the capillary tube did become paler. The second experiment also showed that the more concentrated the solution, the more water diffused in by osmosis. Expt. 3 More recently, I conducted an experiment investigating these processes in a real plant cell. An onion was cut up, and two small pieces of the epidermis (a single layer of cells) were peeled, cut and placed onto microscope slide. Onto one of them was pipetted a few drops of distilled water; onto the other was pipetted a few drops of 1 molar glucose solution. Cover slips were then placed onto the two pieces of onion epidermis. [see diag.3a]. These were then placed under the microscope, and their cells looked identical [see diag.3b]. Fifteen minutes later, however, a marked change had been observed. While the onion cells bathed in distilled water had become turgid [see diag.3c], those bathed in glucose had been plasmolysed [see diag.3d]. Plasmolysis occurs when water diffuses out of the cell vacuole, causing the cytoplasm to have a decreased volume, in turn causing the cell membrane to pull away from the cell wall. It only occurs when the cell is hypoosmotic relative to the bathing solution. That is to say that plasmolysis only occurs when the cells solute potential (?s) is lower and therefore water potential (?w) is higher than that of the bathing solution. The bathing solution is hypertonic: this means that there is a higher concentration of solute, and thus lower concentration of water, in the bathing solution than the cell. Totally dilute water has infinite water potential, and zero solute potential. In Expt.3, the water potential of the onion cells in the glucose solution was greater than that of the onion cells in the distilled water. So, because the onion cells in the glucose solution were hypoosmotic, they were plasmolysed. Whereas the onion cells in the distilled water were hyperosmotic (had higher solute, and therefore lower water, potential), so became turgid. In my investigation of osmosis in potato cells, I hope to be able to determine the water potential of the cells. I will do this by finding the isotonic (equal solute, and therefore water potential) bathing solution. Key Variables I will be testing a total of 5 bathing solutions (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 mol glucose solutions distilled water). I will require 10 potato pieces (two for each solution). As they will be cut from a slice of potato 1 cm tall, the height is already constant. I must also ensure that the breadth of each piece is constant: 1cm. It is vital that the breadth and height are constant so that it is possible to measure any change in length. Of course, in order to measure the change, it will be necessary to ensure that the initial lengths are constant, and to ensure that I measure the same sides at the beginning as the end. To do this, I will take a tiny segment out of one side (I will measure the other). The initial lengths will be 2.5 cm. Obviously, it is hoped that the potato will have an even density, but in case it does not, the individual masses will be measured beforehand as well as afterwards. Through the use of such a precise piece of apparatus, I hope to be more accurate in my final readings. Also, this way the comparison between increase/ decrease in the lengths of potato pieces may be reinforced by a comparison between the increase/ decrease in their masses. So the readings will not only be more accurate, but also more reliable. The initial volumes of the bathing solutions must be constant, in order to better compare any changes in volumes. The initial volumes will be 20ml. The amount of time during which the potato pieces are left in their bathing solutions must be constant. The time set will be 30 minutes. The only variable left is the strength of the bathing solution. These are: 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 mol glucose solutions distilled water. I am using these solutions because I want to show some potato cells become turgid and be plasmolysed: and I will need this sort of range to do so, because potato has a lower water potential than onion (and will therefore need a stronger solution than that used in Expt.3). Aim To discover the water potential of the average potato cell in terms of the relative isotonic bathing solution. Hypothesis As demonstrated in the three experiments in the Introduction, osmosis determines that water travels from high to low concentration over a selectively permeable membrane. In the planned experiment, when the bathing solution is hypertonic (lower water potential, higher solute potential) relative to the potato cell, water will flow out of the vacuole into the bathing solution (plasmolysis, Expt.3). This will cause the potato cells to become flaccid, shrinking and losing weight. The potato pieces that lose mass, and decrease in length will be the ones with high water potential, relative to the bathing solution. I think this will happen in the distilled water, because completely distilled water has infinite water potential. When the bathing solution is hypotonic (higher water potential, lower solute potential) relative to the potato cell, the cell will become turgid because water will flow from the bathing solution into the vacuole. The potato pieces that increase in length and gain mass will be the ones with low water potential, relative to the bathing solution. I predict this for the strong glucose solutions (0.4, 0.6, 0.8 mol), because I have seen from experiments 12 that strong glucose solutions have low water potential. When the bathing solution is isotonic (equal water potential, equal solute potential) relative to the potato cell, the cell will not change. The potato pieces that neither increase nor decrease in length and neither lose nor gain mass will be the ones with the same water potential, relative to the bathing solution. I believe this will occur in the weakest glucose solution (0.2mol) because, although a 0.1mol solution plasmolysed the onions in Expt.3, potatoes have a lower water content than onions (85% as opposed to 89%), meaning that they will also have a lower water potential. I am therefore predicting that the water potential of the average potato cell is equal to that of a low strength glucose solution. I say this because I know that, in distilled water, the cells become turgid; and in strong glucose solutions, the cells plasmolyse. Apparatus slab of potato 1cm thick, scalpel, white tile, solutions (0.3, 0.6, 0.9 mol glucose), distilled water, 5 boiling tubes, clock, ruler (mm), electric balance (to 0.01g), and a measuring cylinder, forceps, boiling tube rack, paper towels. Planned Method First I will cut out the 10 potato pieces (10x10x25mm) on the white tile with the scalpel, taking a chunk out of one side [see diag. 4a]. Then I will measure their masses on the electric balance. Then I will measure out the volumes of the bathing solutions (20ml each) in a measuring cylinder (the measuring cylinder will be dried after each measure) [see diag. 4b]. Then I will pour the bathing solutions into the 5 boiling tubes, which I will have labelled, and two potato pieces will be placed into each boiling tube and the timer started [see diag. 4c]. 30 minutes later, I will remove the 10 potato pieces, rinse (briefly) and dry them, and measure their lengths and masses. These will then be recorded. Then the volumes of the bathing solutions will be recorded (again, the measuring cylinder will be dried after each measure). Diagrams Safety Precautions As with all substances in a science laboratory, it is vital that I do not taste the potato, the solutions or the distilled water. I must not touch my face or licking my fingers before washing my hands, but I should attempt to avoid getting the liquids if possible, as it risks contaminating our results. Evidently, care must also be taken with the scalpel in the cutting of the potato, as it is a sharp instrument.

Free Essays on Loreal

L’Orà ©al: La coloration - Tendances parmi les jeunes - Authors: Nicole BRANDL Wilma HUPPERTZ Linn Camilla SYLTA Maja LECHTMAN Tobias SCHOMACHER Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 2 1.1 METHODOLOGY 3 2 RESULTS OF THE SURVEY 4 2.2 RESULTS: WITH COLOURATION 4 2.3 RESULTS – WITHOUT COLOURATION 9 3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 13 4 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 13 4.1 PRICE POLITICS 14 4.2 PRODUCT FEATURES AND PACKAGING 14 4.3 PROMOTION 15 4.4 PLACE/DISTRIBUTION 15 5 APPENDIX 16 5.1 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE AVEC COLORATION 16 5.2 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE SANS COLORATION 20 5.3 APPENDIX C: STATISTICS 22 1 Introduction Teenagers around the world are becoming more and more concerned about their looks. They shop for their own trendy clothes because it is getting increasingly important to wear the latest fashion. Furthermore, there is a growing number of younger and younger children colouring their hair, often with the permission of their parents. The question, which arises from this, is: Why do adolescents pay more attention to their appearance than in past years? The answer is difficult to find because it is complicated to reveal psychological motivations. Nevertheless, considering the extraordinarily high importance of means of mass communication like TV and Radio, the influence of the media on young people is, without doubt, immense. Moreover, it is probable that the commercials of big companies with a widespread reputation are, in some way, responsible for the above-mentioned movement. That is why more and more firms in the clothing industry as well as those concentrated on the marketing of beaut y products start developing strategies to take advantage of this efficient way of influencing a broad part of the population in order to attract the younger target group. Being aware of the new trend, L’Orà ©al commissioned this study about â€Å"Tendencies among adolescents concerning hair co... Free Essays on Loreal Free Essays on Loreal L’Orà ©al: La coloration - Tendances parmi les jeunes - Authors: Nicole BRANDL Wilma HUPPERTZ Linn Camilla SYLTA Maja LECHTMAN Tobias SCHOMACHER Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 2 1.1 METHODOLOGY 3 2 RESULTS OF THE SURVEY 4 2.2 RESULTS: WITH COLOURATION 4 2.3 RESULTS – WITHOUT COLOURATION 9 3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 13 4 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 13 4.1 PRICE POLITICS 14 4.2 PRODUCT FEATURES AND PACKAGING 14 4.3 PROMOTION 15 4.4 PLACE/DISTRIBUTION 15 5 APPENDIX 16 5.1 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE AVEC COLORATION 16 5.2 APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE SANS COLORATION 20 5.3 APPENDIX C: STATISTICS 22 1 Introduction Teenagers around the world are becoming more and more concerned about their looks. They shop for their own trendy clothes because it is getting increasingly important to wear the latest fashion. Furthermore, there is a growing number of younger and younger children colouring their hair, often with the permission of their parents. The question, which arises from this, is: Why do adolescents pay more attention to their appearance than in past years? The answer is difficult to find because it is complicated to reveal psychological motivations. Nevertheless, considering the extraordinarily high importance of means of mass communication like TV and Radio, the influence of the media on young people is, without doubt, immense. Moreover, it is probable that the commercials of big companies with a widespread reputation are, in some way, responsible for the above-mentioned movement. That is why more and more firms in the clothing industry as well as those concentrated on the marketing of beaut y products start developing strategies to take advantage of this efficient way of influencing a broad part of the population in order to attract the younger target group. Being aware of the new trend, L’Orà ©al commissioned this study about â€Å"Tendencies among adolescents concerning hair co...

Evidence vs. Dogma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Evidence vs. Dogma - Essay Example They continue to advocate the Biblical version of events, that an alien being of undetermined construction and origin made not only the earth and everything on it but the entire universe too. Eventually, society will universally embrace evolution as a fact but, as life itself does, society evolves slowly. People who, despite all evidence to the contrary, continue to â€Å"believe† that the God, as described in the Bible, Koran and/or Torah, created everything in the universe are described as â€Å"creationists†, and the pseudo science they ascribe to is called â€Å"creationism.† Creationism attempts to offer evidence to support superstitious beliefs by challenging the scientific theory. Creationists claim that evolution has not been conclusively proven, that it’s just â€Å"a theory.† Creationists require a higher standard of verification from scientists than they are willing to offer for creation. Scientists are asked to satisfy all questions, whe ther realistic or not, pertaining to the origin of life. It’s an impossible task to answer with certainty the question â€Å"how we got here† unless one accepts the Biblical version of events which is all the evidence they need. ... No one has ever actually seen an atom. No one has ever directly observed either electricity or gravity. To even suggest that science cannot deal with unobservable is to display an ignorance of the nature of the scientific enterprise† (Albert, 1986). Scientists can track the ancestry of living things by comparing similar traits and gene mapping techniques. Evolutionists utilize this scientifically sound method, and it has been conclusively demonstrated that human’s nearest relatives are chimpanzees. Genetically speaking, in addition to physically observable similarities, activities such as tool making and similar social structures, the different types of primates, chimps and people are very similar, too much so for it to be just a coincidence. â€Å"Biologists can cite many instances of parallel evolution in which forms that are only distantly related have developed similarities in structure—for example, the almost identical structures of human and octopus eyes.â €  (Albert, 1986). Darwin theorized that animals physically acclimate to a new surrounding over millions of years, a process which he called natural selection. Since Darwin’s lifetime, scientists have also been pointing to mutation as a method of evolution that can be employed in conjunction with Darwin’s theory. On his historic journey to the Galapagos Islands located about 600 miles off the western South American coast, Darwin carefully documented tangible verification for his evolutionary theory. There are 13 islands of the Galapagos chain, all located relatively together, yet they are greatly different geographically, some had tropical-like conditions, others resembled a desert, some rocky, some sandy, for example. Darwin observed clear physical

The First Continental Congress Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The First Continental Congress - Research Paper Example Each colony sent representatives to the Congress except Georgia which did not want to jeopardize the aid of British troops which were needed in that colony to help fend off Indian attacks. These representatives were not of one mind, however. The historically significant meeting of 54 men which included George Washington, John Adams and Patrick Henry were divided in purpose. Some delegates such as John Adam’s cousin Samuel Adams favored democratizing the colonies though were not yet suggesting forming their own country, at least not publically. Others insisted resolving the issues with Britain were the only sensible way and the meeting’s only intention. The convening of the First Continental Congress was meant to unite the colonies and gain the attention of the Mother Country and in that, its goal was accomplished. The colonists had considered themselves British citizens for the approximately century and a half they had been in America and likely would have continued thi s loyalty to country if the British Parliament and King George III had not restricted trade, increased taxation and permitted Colonies seats in House of Commons. Britain and France were engaged in costly battles both in Europe and America. Desperate to raise funds to pay back debts caused by continued military endeavors, Britain passed the Sugar Act on April 5, 1774 which not only levied a tax on American sugar but prohibited the importation of rum and French wine. The Stamp Act followed the next year requiring stamps to be purchased to sell many common products such as newspapers and playing cards. Stamps are still required today on liquor and cigarettes. Britain justified the tax claiming it was to pay for the protection provided its soldiers to protect citizens from Indian raids, a reason that did fell on deaf ears. Since 1770 the majority of colonists had been against British soldiers occupying America. On March 5th of that year tensions between soldiers and citizens reached its peak when soldiers fired shots into a taunting mob throwing ice-balls and sharp oyster shells at them. The event is popularly known as the Boston Massacre, an incident that might have escalated into all-out war at that time if not for John Adams. He successfully defended the British soldiers against a backdrop of a mob-mentality existing in Boston and spreading through Massachusetts along with the other colonies. (â€Å"American Revolution,† (2012). Following the Boston Massacre, Parliament abolished the Townshend tax which ended the taxes on just about everything except tea which led to another historical event. In December, 1773, colonists disguised as Indians boarded several English ships anchored in Boston Harbor. They tossed 342containers of tea into the sea to protest the tax and British occupation. George Washington, a member of the Virginia House, was concerned this overreaction to a three pence tax would cause the British, known for their ruthless tactics, to retali ate. Samuel Adams, leader of the Sons of Liberty, was â€Å"convinced that the tea duty had to be stopped at all costs and that their symbolic action had aroused America from its slumber.† (Chorlton, 2011 p. 34). Unlike Washington, they were happy because it forced American colonists to take sides. In May of 1774, Parliament passed the Massachusetts Government Act which nullified the Colony’s Charter and made town meetings illegal. The Administration of Justice Act soon followed. It allowed for British

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Assignment Example Introduction An organization can be analysed through various perspectives ranging from bureaucratic, contingency, cultural and political perspectives. Organization bureaucracy is witnessed both in private and public organizations depending on their structure and the culture. The system of bureaucracy is evident in DHL and it from part of the management structure and culture since it is a big firm with lots of activities carried on daily basis. Organizational culture can be considered as the basis for administration since each organization as its own set of rules that determine its behaviour. Every organization has their own unique cultures that are applied in their daily applications to achieve their aims and objectives. A proper organizational structure ensures that there is a smooth coordination and supervision of activities within the organization that hasten the performance of the organization (Spencern, 2010). The structure also acts as the foundation in which the standard opera tional procedures and routines are managed and determines which individuals participate in the decision making process. What is an organization? An organization is a mechanism for coordination actions of people in order to obtain something they desire by creating value .The vision of the company is to be a logistic company in the world, in their mission statement the company strives to simplify the life of customers and to make customers, employees and investor more successful. They make a positive contribution to the people around the by demonstrating utmost respect while achieving results (DHL, 2013b). The headquarters for DHL UAE is strategically located in Dubai since it is a world premier transhipment hub of the Middle East. The trade link amongst China and the Middle East increased to 190 billion dollars in 2010 and DHL is enjoying being part of the shipment and other related logistics. This paper analyses DHL Company in terms of contingency, cultural, bureaucracy and politica l perspective in order to understand their operations fully. What is the importance of the organization? The importance of the organization is to increase specialization and division of labour while using large-scale technology and proper external environment management. DHL in the UAE is a subsidiary of DHL worldwide express, a fast growing company in the enormous growth that is expected to continue in the near future (DHL, 2013c). The HR Department in collaboration with other departments is responsible for recruiting all the employees drawn from various backgrounds to provide the division of labour needed by the company. Administration and compensation benefits are the fastest growing areas of the HR department in the UAE Company. The salaries are being streamlined to match the regional standards of the company in order to minimize spending. The medical benefits, the employee leave, car allowance that was previously administered in ad-hoc basis are now formalized to bring them to regional guidelines. What is organization theory? This is the study of how organizations functions and how they affect and are in turn affected by the environment in which they operate. The requirements of organization theory are that managers select and manage aspects of structure and culture of the company in

Behaviourism And The Psychodynamic Approach Psychology Essay

Behaviourism And The Psychodynamic Approach Psychology Essay Behaviourism is mostly about observable behaviours and views how learning is through association, seen in Classical Conditioning and through behaviour reinforcement, as in Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner, 1938). The Psychodynamic Approach (Sigmund Freud, writing between the 1890s and the 1930s) views all behaviours as being controlled by thought processes of the mind. (Cardwell et al. 2004) Behaviourism primarily looks at behaviours that can be seen, and states that we are born with a mind like an empty wipe board (tabula rasa) and all of our behaviours are acquired from what goes on around us in our environment (McLeod. 2007). The following outlines two learning theories. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs through association. An unconditioned stimulus results in an unconditioned response, and the theory is that the same response can be evoked by a conditioned stimulus. (Learning Theories Knowledgebase. 2012). Operant conditioning is about learning through reinforcement (positive or negative rewards and punishment) from the environment. Learning is a progressive activity that starts by rewarding behaviour that is associated to any wanted outcome (Cardwell et al. 2004). This happens quite naturally without any awareness, for example in praising children for milestone achievements like using the potty. One key research study of learning theories is classical conditioning and Ivan Pavlovs Dog experiment (1927). This involved investigating how the dogs learnt through association. The following stages were used, with the repetition of the unconditioned with the conditioned stimulus being used together. In the first stage, before conditioning, when the dogs are given the unconditioned stimulus (dog food) this results in salivation, the unconditioned response this is a natural response. In the next stage, the conditioned stimulus (the bell) was introduced with the unconditioned stimulus (dog food) and the dogs salivated, the unconditioned response. In the final stage, once the conditioned stimulus (the bell) was introduced without the dog food, the dogs still salivated, the conditioned response not a natural response for a bell being given at meal times instead of food (Atherton. 2011). Generalisation can also be seen in classical conditioning, as the conditioned stimulus, the bell in this case, could be changed to a bell with a different sound and the conditioned response would remain; although it would however weaken over a period of time, if the bell continuously changed (Gross. 1988). An example of everyday classical conditioning would be through the use of advertising. An advertisement comes on the television for a bar of chocolate which you love. This arouses a feeling of hunger and craving for some chocolate. One of psychologys most important contributions of behaviourism was the theory of classical conditioning. Behavioural therapies came about in the 1950s as a result of this and many treatments are used today for mental health; behaviour moderation; phobias, and anxiety related conditions (Cardwell et al. 2004). Positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning has also been extremely useful when working with children who have additional needs or autistic spectrum disorders, as it enables maladaptive behaviour to be modified or reshaped. Government guidelines implemented within policies and procedures in childcare settings, have been based around the perspectives of behaviourism (Tassoni et al. 2010). However, as the scientific experiments applied the use of animals in controlled laboratory conditions, this limits findings relevant to the real-life situations of humans, so is reductionist. Behaviourism does not take into account actions of the mind either, so psychology as a science is unable to analyse anything it cannot openly observe. (McLeod. 2007). Other arguments are that some therapies will fail once treatments stop, as in aversion therapy, and in the treatment of flooding the individual needs to be in good health and if they were to be removed from treatment too early, it would lead to further reinforcement of the phobia they went in for in the first place (Cardwell et al. 2004). .The psychodynamic approach (Sigmund Freud 1856 -1939) believes that behaviour is part of unconscious thought processes and is imbedded by our childhood experiences. Stricker and Widiger (2003) talk about layers of the mind; the conscious, imagined as the smallest part the tip of an iceberg, where all present awareness is; the preconscious, a larger part just below the water line of an iceberg, where memories and thoughts can be accessed easily by the conscious, and the unconscious, the largest part of an iceberg that is well immersed below the water, where repressed memories and inappropriate desires are held unavailable to us. Freud describes personality as being structured in to three different parts: Id, present from birth, works on instinct and the principals of pleasure; Ego, at age one three years, keeps in touch with the real world and satisfies the Id in a realistic, appropriate way; and Superego, age three six years, where our morality oversees our personality in relati on to our environment. According to Freud, another key aspect of theory is that of psychosexual development. The stages of this theory are the Oral stage, where the mouth is the first area of pleasure; the Anal stage, where the second area of pleasure is the anus this stage is important around toilet training, and the Phallic stage, where the focus of pleasure is with the genitals. This stage also encounters gender identity development and the Oedipus complex (where boys become attracted to their mothers and fearful of their fathers). If too much or too little satisfaction is received through these stages, we become obsessed and persist with the same demands during the rest of our life, resulting in neurotic behaviours (Cardwell et al. 2004). One key study by Freud (1909) was on Little Hans, the child of a friend of Freud whom he never actually met. He was five years old. He became fearful of horses to the extent that he would no longer go in to the street. White horses, that wore blinkers and had black colouring around the mouth, were feared most. As Hans was in the phallic stage of his development and therefore in the Oedipus Complex, according to Freud, the belief was that he was actually afraid of his father not the horses. This assumption was reached as Hans father wore glasses; these could be associated with the blinkers, and he also had a moustache; this could represent the black around the horses mouth. (Cardwell and Flanagan. 2004) The progression of Psychotherapy has been a substantial contribution of the psychodynamic approach, as Freuds psychoanalytical therapy, which sees mild psychiatric disorders in adults such as anxiety and eating disorders, and some depressions, as deeply hidden childhood problems. Patients are helped by creating an ideal environment in which to draw out these concerns into the conscious mind, where they can then be explored, tackled and resolved. Disadvantages of psychodynamic therapies are that treatment can be over many years and is therefore expensive and unrealistic. Therapies are not suitable for all psychological disorders, mainly just those that come under neuroses. Also, uncovering the past can cause more emotional stress than the current problem holds for the patient. Behaviourism has contributed to therapies that we still use today. One of the therapies based on classical conditioning is Systematic Desensitisation (Wolpe. 1958). This method helps with phobias and anxieties by using deep relaxation and replacing a fearful reaction with a response that is unable to exist with fear. Another therapy is Implosion and Flooding where the individuals phobic object is revealed with no reduction in anxiety and no relaxation. The purpose is that high levels of anxiety cannot be maintained for a long period of time, so start to diminish along with the realisation that nothing bad has happened to them, so the fear should dissipate. A technique called Aversion Therapy is also based on classical conditioning and is used to remove unwanted behaviours like alcoholism, smoking and drug addiction. These behaviours are associated with an unpleasant stimulus in an attempt to remove them. For instance, a cigarette may have a nausea-inducing substance which in turn pai rs the feeling of nausea with tobacco. Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy is widely used and elements of it originate from behaviourism. It looks at the individuals beliefs and rational or irrational thought patterns and then the consequences of these, if desirable or undesirable emotions come about leading to desirable or undesirable behaviour. Once these have been recognised, the therapist and the client work on the issues together. (Gross. 1987) Contributions of the psychodynamic approach include Free Association, in which the individual allows feelings, thoughts and images to free-flow, with the therapist out of sight who will interrupt occasionally to get reflections with the implications of the associations. The theory is that the internal conflict will reveal itself in the associations. Boker (1992) believes psychodynamic therapy is also helpful to patients will schizophrenia, whilst taking phenothiazines, as this medication enables them to be more available (Cardwell et al. 2004). Another contribution is Play Therapy, characterised by Sweeney and Landreth (2003) as child-centred play therapy. The therapists objective is to allow the child to release their inner disturbances by bringing out the experiences through play rather than being the victim (McMonigle. 2008). It can be seen therefore that behaviourists treat existing problems; whereas in contrast, the psychodynamic approach wants to find the route of the problem. Both of these approaches have influenced modern practices.

Competition Bikes Cost Analysis Essay

Every business is involved in production where some costs are incurred. In order for a business to allocate its selling price to its products, costing analysis is required.Costing which is a method of accounting used by financial management is a very essential process. It gives a full description concerning all costs incurred in the business either variable or fixed. It gives the final production cost which in turn is used in determining the selling price of the commodities, the units to be produced which is equivalent to its market share. Competition Bikes needs to put in place a costing system that is essential and economical to its production processes. Recently it’s using conventional based approach which involves assigning costs according to the volume of goods produced. This makes products to be the main determinant of costs. Competition Bikes are in a dilemma whether to continue with conventional approach or shift to activity method of costing. Activity system of costing divides the costs into a number of activities used in the production process. It takes an assumption that costs in an organization have multiple determinants different from its production. In order for the Competition Bikes to decide whether to shift or not, an evaluation is needed where some advantages of activity costing system are considered over conventional volume method of costing. One of the benefits of adopting activity based system of costing is that it gives an accurate computation. This is as a result of taking accounts for costs incurred in each level of production compared to when taken at the end of the production based on the volume produced. Cost drivers are very essential tools when carrying out costing. The activity system of cost accounting gives a clear identification of the specific and precise drivers used in determining the costs. This is very important to any organization as incase of costing problems, it enables the cost accountants to trace them which making it easy to come up with the best mechanism of controlling cost. Through such analysis, it’s beneficial for the Competition Bikes to shift from conventional to activity method of costing which is a better system. The other area that the report takes in to consideration is the breakeven point. This is important as the company is involved with two productions i.e. Titanium Bikes and carbon lite which is done using the concept of cost-volume-profits. This analysis brings the relationship between the profits, volume of goods produced, and the organizations costs. The benefit of an analysis based on breakeven point is to enable the firm to make proper decisions concerning prices of goods produced. The analysis shows that CVP is not an effective approach. This is because it takes an assumption that the organization deals with a single product which is not true to many organizations. Due to this assumption, an establishment of sales mix must be put into place. In every production there are two key types of costs incurred i.e. fixed and variable costs. The report examines the impact of changing them, of which it has shown that it will have a significant effect on the costs. Costing method This refers to the method of reporting and financial recording. It involves the process of taking computations of the costs incurred in the process of producing goods (Chang, Pelliser, 1996 ). This costing is done by a finance manager who takes into consideration different types of cost information and uses them in the computations. This includes costs of company overheads, labor hours and the units of production. This is a tool used by analysts to identify cost drivers and in turn use them in computing costs. Competition Bikes needs to establish an efficient method of costing which is economical and provides accurate information. In order to come up with such a method, it has to examine whether to take volume based or activity based costing. Volume based costing It’s a traditional method of costing of which competition bikes is currently using in its computations. This type of approach allocates costs using the volume of goods produced. It’s different from activity based method as it uses a single cost driver which is the total volume of goods produced. This approach becomes very challenging to the organization when allocating costs using approach. The reason is that in costing, both variable costs and overhead costs are important, but this approach ignores overhead costs which are assigned to products on the basis of their usage of direct labor. It assumes any activity without direct impact on the volume of goods produced, as it considers the main drivers to be the product. It gives inaccurate reports as it’s a traditional approach used in the past where overhead costs were ignored. This was as a result of these costs taking an extremely small part on the overall costs of the organization, which is different nowadays as they are significantly high and the company cannot afford to ignore them. It’s also a structure oriented approach, this implies that it’s more concerned with the chart of the organization rather than actual involvement in the production. It makes the process of production to be very shallow as it gives information concerning total amount of money used, without giving clear details of why it was spent. This brings a challenge incase the company wants to introduce measures of saving costs as no clear information given. Activity based cost accounting It’s a costing method which identifies all the activities involved in the organization concerning the production of goods. It assigns every activity the cost incurred in it before giving the full cost of production. It’s different from volume based which assumes products to be the main cost drivers unlike activities which are the main cost drivers. Activity based puts into consideration the overhead costs of the company enhancing their control through showing the relationship between activities in the organization and the costs incurred. It’s an efficient method as it enables analysts to have a clear cost links between the management responsibilities, products, organizational processes, customers and other cost drivers. Unlike volume based, this approach provides accurate computations as all cost drivers are examined basing them on the cost of running the company. Another benefit of this approach is that it provides the organization with clear ways which can be used when implementing measures of cost saving (Chang, Pelliser, 1996). It’s a process oriented approach as it gathers information about the costs of the firm through organizational process evaluation. Costs problems are well addressed as it provides elaborate information which is used in establishing efficient mechanisms and elaborate information relating to resources used in each activity. Organizational cost levels Unit level; it’s a level where cost is incurred in producing one unit of a product such as cost of cost of direct labor and materials. Batch level; it’s a level where cost is realized after producing a batch of goods such as cost incurred in planning. Product level; it’s a level where cost of every product is computed without considering how many units have been produced such as cost of designing the product. Facility level; these are indirect costs which cannot be linked to any single product such as office expenses and indirect labor. Activity system of costing shows all the activities that leads to overheads costs of the organization. Due to this system enhancing allocation of activity cost pools, it enables computation of the fixed costs in the organization which differentiates period costs from products costs. Recommendation Through the analysis of the two methods of costing, Competition Bikes needs to change from its costing method and adopt activity-based system of costing. The reason behind is that Competition Bikes have a very large portion of its total cost being the fixed cost of over $500000 dollars. Activity based system will help in identifying the different drivers of this cost hence enabling the company to establish measures of saving costs. This approach comprises of six activities namely;factory setups, engineering services, quality controls, products movements, depreciation and utilities. It also identifies cost drivers based on each activity such as setups, engineering, inspections on quality controls and by products used by the factory, which is different from volume based approach which makes it hard for the organization to implement strategies of cost saving. This system is very important as it will enable the company to have accurate costs estimations. This will provide different figures relating to fixed costs as opposed to volume based method. The system will enhance accurate computations by Competition Bikes and them to compute all costs occurring at each level that is variable costs at the unit level, cost of control at the batch level, cost of product movement at the product level and depreciation cost at the facility level. 2. A breakeven point. It’s a situation attained when the total cost of production of a particular product becomes equivalent to the cost of producing it. Its analysis is a very vital tool used in decision making by the business. It helps the business in determining the amount of product to be produced in order to make this product profitable through production plans. This enables the organization to make better decisions concerning prices of the goods from the unit level. Breakeven units It refers to the total number of units an organization is expected to produce in order to make the total cost equivalent to revenues obtained from this product. Titanium breakeven units is 1514, implying that Competition Bikes must sell such units of titanium for the organization to start realizing profits. The one for carbon lite is 915 while for the mix is 2429. This shows that the company needs to produce 2429 units of both products for the business to start making profits. They are calculated by dividing the organization’s fixed cost with the contribution margin. The contribution margin refers to the variation between prices of one unit of a product and the unit cost of the same product. It gives a reflection of amount of money that a specific sale contributes in relation to covering the fixed costs of a firm. The contribution margin fortitanium is $230 since the unit price for titanium is $1500 and its variable cost is $1270. Its sales mix is 550 units for titanium and 350 units for carbon lite. This shows that for every sale of 900 units made by the company, 550 are made up of titanium and the rest 350 are sales of carbonlite. This sales mix for both products is multiplied by their total contribution margin giving 234,500. It’s then divided by 900 so as to attain weighted average that gives a contribution margin of a single unit of the mix giving us 260.56. The contribution margin was obtained by dividing $500,000 by the common weight of the contribution margin giving us; Titanium = 550/900 * 2478 =1514 Carbonlite = 350/900*2478 = 964 Breakeven points in terms of dollars It gives an indication of the amounts of sales that have to be achieved so to enable the firm to cover its entire production cost. In terms of dollars, it’s obtained by multiplying units’ price of the product and its breakeven units. Titanium = 1514 units *$ 850= 1,286,900 Carbonlite= 964 units *1500= 1,446,000 The analysis above indicates that Competition Bikes has to make a sale 1,286,900 of titanium and 1,446,000 of carbonlite for the business to start realizing profits. b. Change in Breakeven analysis Any change made in the fixed costs of the organization brings an impact that is significant to the breakeven analysis. Breakeven point brings the relationship in the organization between its price, fixed costs, variable costs and the volume of sales. If the company decides to increase its fixed cost by $20,000 it gives a new value of $ 520,000. This indicates that the company needs to sell additional units so as to cover that increase. Any change in the business direct materials will also cause significant impact on the breakeven point. If the company increases the cost of direct materials with 20% of the cost, variable cost of both products will increase by the same margin. If contribution margin changes, it results to changes in the contribution margin of the weighted average. Since sales mix of carbonlite is 350, its contribution margin and sales mix becomes 15400. While that of titanium is 550, its contribution margin and sales mix becomes 104885 giving a total of 120,285. Average weight of the contribution margin 120,285/900= 133.65 Breakeven point for the mix 520,000/ 133.65 = 3900 Breakeven points using sales mix of each product Titanium = 550/ 900 * 3900= 2200 Carbonlite = 350/ 900 * 3900= 1517 Breakeven value change in terms of dollars Titanium = 2200 units *$850 = $1,870,000 Carbonlite = 1517 units *$1500 = $2,275,500 Conclusion Every business should adopt a costing system which helps in computing costs incurred in the business. This information is very important in making decisions concerning the prices of the products. Within the two systems of allocating costs, that is volume based and activity based systems of costing. Volume based is not an efficient method as it assumes that product is the main cost driver. Through the above analysis, it’s clear that Competition Bikes should adopt activity based system as it provides accurate information, elaborate information that can be used in providing cost saving mechanism. It has also considered the breakeven analysis which is an important tool in deciding the prices of commodities. Lastly, the report has shown that if there is a change in either the fixed or variable costs, it brings a significant effect on the costs. References Brimson, J. A. (1991). Activity accounting: an activity-based costing approach. J. Wiley. Cao, P., Toyabe, S. I., &Akazawa, K. (2006).Development of a practical costing method for hospitals.The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine, 208(3), 213-224. Park, S. E., & Lee, Y. K. (2006). Efficient bid pricing based on costing methods for Internet bid systems. In Web Information Systems–WISE 2006 (pp. 289-299). Springer Berlin Heidelberg Source document

Lyca Mobile

London, UK, 11th June 2012 Lycamobile UK gets the larger piece of the international mobile calls pie. Lycamobile, the global leader for low cost international mobile calls, affirms its position as the most used MVNO in the UK leading the way in brand awareness and usage according to research. Sample research conducted by YouGov revealed Lycamobile as the number one consumer brand for international mobile calls across the globe.In the research study conducted for Lycamobile it was established that over 50% of respondents made international calls and in the category â€Å"International calls with a separate mobile phone† Lycamobile scored highest for awareness and usage. The high level of awareness and usage which Lycamobile has achieved since launch in 2008 is driven by its strong brand, a compelling value proposition, high quality service and extensive retail distribution. Subaskaran Allirajah, Lycamobile Chairman commented, â€Å"This is great news for Lycamobile and our cus tomers.Coupled with the recent growth figures in Spain where Lycamobile is the number one MVNO this continues to consolidate our position as the global leader in low cost international mobile calls. Over the past 5 years the Lycamobile team have worked tremendously hard to launch into 14 countries and to be the dominant global MVNO player. We are extremely pleased with these findings and look forward to increasing our global footprint this year†. Milind Kangle, CEO of Lycamobile, added â€Å"I am delighted with the initial results. The brand awareness and usage shows that every 4 seconds a new customer joins the Lycamobile family.This success we have had is down to the vision on our Chairman Subaskaran Allirajah and the hard work, commitment and enterprise of our 4000 employees in the UK and across the world. Lycamobile will continue to invest in high quality of service and value proposition ensuring that customers can stay in touch with their friends and family during these times of austerity. † – End About Lycamobile Lycamobile is a prepaid mobile SIM card provider that provides low-cost, high-quality international and national calls to over 8. million customers across 14 countries (UK, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Italy, Spain, Australia, France, Germany, Poland and Ireland). Lycamobile is available through an extensive network of more than 500,000 retail outlets. The brand was initially introduced in 2006 and is already Europe’s largest pre-pay MVNO. Lycamobile continues to grow rapidly with further market launches planned throughout 2012. www. lycamobile. co. uk Notes to Editor: 1. Anchor tags: Lycamobile: free calls! 2. Contact person: [email  protected] com

Free Essays on Aswan High Dam

INTRODUCTION: The livelihood and stability of Egypt `s population is directly linked to the Nile valley and delta. Although these two regions account for less then 5% of Egypt `s land surface (fig. 1), all its agriculture and water sources are concentrated in these areas (White 1988). The water sources for the Nile are the Blue Nile (originating at Ethiopian highland) and the White Nile (draining east central Africa and Sudan).The river flows through Egypt toward the Mediterranean sea, forming a delta at its south-east coast. Fig. 1 - The Nile path after building the Aswan high dam. (White 1988). Prior to the beginning of emplacement of barrage along the Nile in the last century, the river had a seasonally fluctuating fluvial regime (Hurst 1964). Its annually water discharge at the coast was above 8*1010 m3, caring about 10*108 tons of sediments (Eldardir 1994), and was the main sediment source for the east Mediterranean (Stanley and Wingerath 1996). At the end of the 19th century two major sediment bearing distributors were active (Damietta and Rosetta, fig. 2) (Stanley 1996). A series of barrages along the Nile (north of Aswan) were constructed during the 19th century regulating flow and navigation (Elassiouti 1983). At the beginning of the 20th century the first dam in Aswan, the low dam, was build. This dam was designed to generate hydroelectric power and, to decrease the seasonal fluctuations in the Nile flow (without carrying any water storage over from one year to another). Accordingly, it hasn't stored any significant amounts of Nile silt. During the 1950's the Egyptian government had to face a very high population grow rate (~3% a year). Given its limited resources of arable land in the Nile valley, Egypt was looking for opportunities to expand its agriculture, energy, and associated manufacturing production. The easiest alternative was to expand the irrigated areas and to inc... Free Essays on Aswan High Dam Free Essays on Aswan High Dam INTRODUCTION: The livelihood and stability of Egypt `s population is directly linked to the Nile valley and delta. Although these two regions account for less then 5% of Egypt `s land surface (fig. 1), all its agriculture and water sources are concentrated in these areas (White 1988). The water sources for the Nile are the Blue Nile (originating at Ethiopian highland) and the White Nile (draining east central Africa and Sudan).The river flows through Egypt toward the Mediterranean sea, forming a delta at its south-east coast. Fig. 1 - The Nile path after building the Aswan high dam. (White 1988). Prior to the beginning of emplacement of barrage along the Nile in the last century, the river had a seasonally fluctuating fluvial regime (Hurst 1964). Its annually water discharge at the coast was above 8*1010 m3, caring about 10*108 tons of sediments (Eldardir 1994), and was the main sediment source for the east Mediterranean (Stanley and Wingerath 1996). At the end of the 19th century two major sediment bearing distributors were active (Damietta and Rosetta, fig. 2) (Stanley 1996). A series of barrages along the Nile (north of Aswan) were constructed during the 19th century regulating flow and navigation (Elassiouti 1983). At the beginning of the 20th century the first dam in Aswan, the low dam, was build. This dam was designed to generate hydroelectric power and, to decrease the seasonal fluctuations in the Nile flow (without carrying any water storage over from one year to another). Accordingly, it hasn't stored any significant amounts of Nile silt. During the 1950's the Egyptian government had to face a very high population grow rate (~3% a year). Given its limited resources of arable land in the Nile valley, Egypt was looking for opportunities to expand its agriculture, energy, and associated manufacturing production. The easiest alternative was to expand the irrigated areas and to inc...

Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening Advantages and Disadvantages

Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening Advantages and Disadvantages Introduction Listening can be viewed as one of the most important skills that need to be acquired by learners in any language. It is one of the four skills that language learners acquire, and out of the four, it is one of the skills that are most frequently used by the individuals.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening: Advantages and Disadvantages specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Most instructors teach listening and speaking simultaneously. However, it is noted that beginners in any language, and specifically those that are considered to be non-literate, need to be exposed to more listening than speaking processes, again making listening a vital part of learning any language (Bygate 2001). Rost (2002b) is of the view that instructors use many types of techniques and activities as they teach listening. These activities are more often than not informed by the needs and traits of their students. There are those activities where the learner is expected to produce a language and others where this production is not necessary. For example, a learner may be expected to physically react to commands that are given by the instructors (Rost 2002a). This is for example commands such as â€Å"please come here†. Just like there are many techniques that are used by the instructor in the teaching of listening skills, there are many forms of materials that the instructor can use to instil these skills on their learners. These materials are divided into two major categories; authentic and non-authentic materials (Hughes 2002). The latter are also referred to as scripted materials, given the fact that they are edited and specially prepared for the classroom. Debate has emerged as to the advantages and disadvantages of using authentic materials in teaching listening. There are those who argue that use of authentic materials in teaching listening is more beneficial both to the learners and to the instructors as compared to the use of scripted materials. On the extreme end of the continuum are those who argue that it is more beneficial to use scripted materials in teaching listening skills than to use authentic materials. Each of these schools of thought has justifications that they use to support their arguments.Advertising Looking for essay on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This paper is going to look at the benefits and disadvantages of using authentic materials in teaching listening. The author is first going to look at the various definitions of authentic materials and the various sources of the same. The author will then look at the advantages of using these materials as compared to using scripted materials. The disadvantages of these materials will then be addressed, and these will mainly be the limitations that the instructors face as they incorporate these materials in their classrooms. Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening: Benefits and Disadvantages Authenticity in the context of teaching has been defined variously. The various definitions depend on the philosophical orientations of the different scholars in this field. However, a common thread appears between these definitions, a thread depicted by the central theme of the definitions. A definition by Martinez (2002) is widely accepted in this field, and it is the one that is going to be adopted in this paper. Martinez (2002) conceptualizes authenticity in linguistics as a form of real language emanating from a real speaker or writer, language that targets a real audience. The language is also designed or structured in such a way that it conveys a real message of some nature (Tamo 2009). From this definition, it is easier for one to define authentic materials in the teaching of listening skills. Authentic texts, according to Yingmai (2005), are those written or spoken t exts that are targeted at native speakers of a given language. This is for example a conversation in English. This conversation can only be comprehended by English speakers, and the source of the conversation was targeting these speakers. As such, authentic texts are not specifically designed for the learners of the language in question, and this is one of the factors that set them apart from scripted texts. Whereas scripted texts are designed for the specific consumption of the learners of the language, authentic texts are designed for the native speakers of that language (Thanajaro 2000). Deriving from the discourse above, it is obvious that for a text to be considered as been authentic it must meet one major criteria; it should not have produced specifically for the aims of teaching a language (Thanajaro 2000).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening: Advantages and Disadvantages specifically for you for only $1 6.05 $11/page Learn More For example, a radio interview between a celebrity and a presenter is not aimed at teaching the English language, but targeted at English speakers. However, this interview can be used to teach listening skills to a class of English learners. Riding on the definitions of authenticity that have been provided above, it is now possible to conceptualize the meaning of authentic materials in teaching listening. According to Ur (2005), these are elements of real language that are produced for the native speaker of the language and which are designed devoid of the intention of teaching the language to learners. When viewed from this pedestal, it becomes obvious that we are surrounded by a large amount of authentic materials, materials that we interact with in our daily life. This is for example the articles in newspapers and other print media, electronic broadcasts such as TV and internet productions and conversations between individuals in the socie ty, conversations that occur on a daily basis. These authentic materials can be used to teach listening skills within a classroom setting. For example, the instructor may make the learners listen to radio broadcasts and then act on the conversations between different individuals. As earlier indicated in this paper, this form of teaching listening skills has its advantages and disadvantages. These will be looked into in detail below: Advantages of Using Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening Scholars in this field agree that using these materials in teaching listening skills is beneficial to the learners, to the teachers and to the language in general as far as some aspects are concerned. This is regardless of whether the learners are foreign language speakers learning the language as their second or foreign language, or native speakers who are advancing their skills in the language. The benefits of these materials also extends to the advanced and beginners in the language. The fo llowing are some of the advantages:Advertising Looking for essay on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Learners are Exposed to Real Language Lingzhu and Yuanyuan (2010) concur that unlike scripted materials, authentic listening materials expose the learners to the real language. This is the language that is used in daily and real life of people who speak the language, or the natives. Lingzhu and Yuanyuan (2010) expound on this point by taking a look at the different features of the authentic and scripted listening materials that are used in the classroom setting. The different features can be condensed into four aspects of the two materials. These are as follows: Varying Redundant Features In authentic listening materials, the speakers more often than not use more words than necessary to convey their message (Luoma 2004). This is something that does not happen in scripted listening materials. According to Ur (2005), this is the redundant nature of authentic materials. Redundancy in authentic materials such as conversation can take various forms. This is for example repetition of phra ses and words, re-phrasing, tautologies among others (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). This is for example use of phrases that can be taken as meaningless, phrases such as umh, err, I mean and such others (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). Many scripted materials lack these features, despite the fact that they are common occurrences in daily conversations and interactions. As such, when the instructor uses authentic materials, the learners are exposed to this feature which is a reality of the language. Varying Grammatical Features It is a fact beyond doubt that differences exist between the authentic and scripted materials as far as their grammar is concerned. This is basically the variation between spoken and written language (Salehzaden 2006). For example, spoken language contains few subordinate clauses. Speakers also use incomplete sentences, an attribute that is uncommon in scripted materials (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). The vocabulary that is produced by speakers is less specific as comp ared to that of writers, and speakers tend to use interactive expressions such as mmh more than in written language (Lynch 2004). When the learners make use of authentic listening materials in their learning of listening skills, they are exposed to these features, and are thus able to adapt to the real language where they are used more easily. Varying Stylistic Features Authentic listening materials such as interviews and conversations are different from the scripted materials as far as their stylistic features are concerned. For example, they are more characterised by natural and spontaneous language that varies from one speaker to the other and from one dialect to the other (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). Authentic listening materials contain a lot of informal words, idioms and slangs that are not to be found in the scripted materials. It is important to expose the learners to these aspects of the real language to prepare them for the real world out there. Varying Environmental Featu res The environmental features of the authentic and the scripted listening materials also do vary. For example, authentic materials are characterised by a lot of background noise, which is filtered and more often than not eliminated in scripted materials (Flowerdew and Miller 2005). Ur (2005) and Anderson (2004) are of the view that noise is usually caused by interference which may be internal or external to the listener, interference that affects the listening and comprehension of the spoken language. Internal noise may be for example lack of attention on the part of the listener or the inability to comprehend the words spoken. External noise may be for example when a phrase is misused or misplaced by the speaker making it hard for the listener to comprehend (Boxer and Cohen 2004). Incorrect intonations and mispronunciations by the speaker may also be sources of external disturbance for the listener. As such, authentic materials expose the learner to this feature of the real world. Learners’ Motivation is Stimulated by the use of Authentic Listening Materials Research by scholars in this field have revealed that the use of authentic materials in teaching listening is more appealing to the learners as compared to the use of scripted materials (Wilson 2004). As earlier indicated, sources of authentic listening materials include newspapers, the internet and such other electronic media. These forms of media are mainly part and parcel of the popular culture in the society. This is given the fact that they carry materials that embodies popular culture in the society. This is for example interviews with celebrities, interviews that are contained in websites and on fashion magazines. These materials tend to be more appealing to the contemporary learner, especially for the youthful learners. As such, the materials are more effective in teaching these students. The authentic materials also tend to have content that is more current and as such relevant to the stu dents (Berardo 2006). For example, newspapers and television broadcasts contain more recent information than books that were written years ago. Internet articles are also updated regularly. As such, the gap between the students and the social reality in the world is bridged by authentic listening materials (Hwang 2005). The students therefore find these materials to be more interesting to interact with, and their experiences in this interaction are enriched. This enables them to acquire the listening skills easily and faster. Wang (2000) is of the view that learners who constantly receive the authentic listening input are better placed than their counterparts who receive scripted inputs. This is given the fact that the former will find it easier to communicate and interact with the native speakers of the language that they are learning in real life situations (Hwang 2005). This is as opposed to those students who make use of scripted listening materials, which are more often than no t out of touch with the reality. The true listening ability of the learners using the authentic listening materials is fully developed than that of those using scripted materials. This is given that the latter have to make adjustments between what they learn in class and what they encounter out there in the real world. Accumulation of the Learner’s Knowledge Rost (2002a) and Rost (2002b) contend that authentic listening materials have a wide range of information than the edited and scripted materials used for teaching listening such as books. The information contained therein covers many fields of the real world and of the human life. These topics range from popular culture such as music and films to more mundane topics such as geography and politics. As such, when the instructor makes use of these materials in teaching their students learning skills, they end up equipping their charges with more than just the ability to listen. This is an opportunity for the learners to accu mulate their knowledge on the world that they live in, the world outside the four walls of their classroom (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). Contrast this with the scripted materials like textbooks. These materials contain information that is limited to the listening needs of the students. Reflection of the Changes in the World As indicated earlier in this paper, authentic listening materials have contents that are regularly updated and as such reflect the reality of the social world. This content in extension reflects the changes that are taking place in the social world, the world within which the learners live (Yingmai 2005). It is erroneous to assume that the world within which we live is a static phenomenon. To the contrary, the social world is fluid in nature, with changes taking place in time and space. For example, the language that was used by the older generation in their teens has drastically changed, and the contemporary teenager speaks in a language full of slangs and idioms that are so unlike those used by their elders. Authentic listening materials reflect these changes in language and other attribute of the social world. As such, use of these materials has the advantage of keeping the students abreast of what is happening in the real world (Martinez 2002). Disadvantages of Using Authentic Materials to Teach Listening The advantages of using authentic materials in teaching listening are not without riding limitations and disadvantages that sometimes make it inappropriate to use them in the classroom. Some of these disadvantages are elaborated on below: Cultural Bias The materials, as much as they reflect the social reality of the world within which the learners exist, may be too culturally biased as to make no sense at all to the learners (Martinez 2002). This is especially so if the materials are used in their raw form with no editing or support to adapt them to the classroom environment. As such, the content of the materials may not make sense outs ide the culture within which the native speakers of the language exist. This attribute of the materials makes it very hard for learners of the language, especially those that are learning a foreign language, to benefit from the content of the authentic materials. For example, an interview with a pop idol in the United States of America may not make sense to a Russian learning the English language. This is given the fact that the content of the interview may be biased to the American culture, with the Russian been unable to connect with it. Similarly, the same interview with a teen idol may not make sense to an octogenarian in the United States of America who is working on advancing her English language. Difficulty of the Language It has been noted that authentic materials are rarely edited to accommodate the different needs and competence of different learners. This is given the fact that such editing may interfere with the authenticity of the material (Tamo 2009). As such, sometime s the language used in the materials may too hard to be comprehended by learners, especially those at elementary levels. The language of the materials may too complex for these learners. Take for example an interview with a market analyst, who keeps using jargon to refer to practices in their field. As much as this interview exposes the learners to the reality of the marketing field, the complex language may hamper the development of their listening skills (Beare 2011). Increased Learning Burden It is noted that some content of the authentic listening materials may be irrelevant to the learners (Berardo 2006). This increases the learning burden of the learners unnecessarily. Some words and phrases that are to be found in these materials are rarely used outside the context of the materials. For example, phrases and words that are used in a conversation between two music producers may not be used outside the context of the entertainment industry. This is especially so if the conversat ion is full of jargon and technical terms that apply only to the field. Lingzhu and Yuanyuan (2010) contend that some of the items in authentic materials such as vocabulary and phrases occur in low frequency in the real world. They may also be peripherally used in the real world, and the student may not come into contact with them again in the future (Ur 2005). As such, the significance of learning such items is lost to the student and to the instructor. This is especially so if the materials used contain a significantly large number of such items. Unavailability of the Materials There are instances where it is hard for the instructors and the learners to access authentic materials to use in the classroom. This is for example when the learners are engaged in learning a foreign language. Given that the language is foreign to the land and to the learning environment, coming into contact with such materials may be hard (Martinez 2002). For example, the instructor may find it hard to ac cess newspaper articles that are reported with the language that they are engaged in. The process of acquiring the authentic listening materials in such situations may be costly and time consuming both to the learners and to the instructors (Ur 2005). This makes the use of authentic listening materials in teaching an unattractive alternative to the learners and the teachers, as it is more costly than the use of script materials such as books. Conclusion The use of authentic listening materials in teaching listening has been embraced by many instructors and learners in contemporary society. This is given the many advantages that this form of learning has over the use of scripted materials. For example, the materials expose the learner to the real world, they reflect the changes in the world and they are more relevant to the learners. However, there are several disadvantages that make the use of this technique unattractive. This includes the irrelevancy of some of the items in the mat erials and the exorbitant costs that are incurred in accessing these materials by the learners and the instructors in some cases. However, when all the factors are considered, it appears that the use of authentic materials in teaching listening is more beneficial than it is costly. References Anderson, K 2004, Study Speaking, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Beare, K 2011, Appropriate Classroom Materials. [online]. Available from: http://esl.about.com/od/esleflteachertraining/a/t_approp.htm . Berardo, S A 2006, The Use of Authentic Materials in the Teaching of Reading, The Reading Matrix, 6(2): 23-27. Boxer, D and Cohen, A 2004, Studying Speaking to Inform Second Language learning, New York: Clevedon. Bygate, M 2001, Speaking, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Flowerdew, J and Miller, L 2005, Second Language Listening: Theory and Practice, London: London University Press. Hughes, R 2002, Teaching and Researching Speaking, London: London University Press. Hwang, C C 2005, Effect ive EFL Education through Popular Authentic Materials, Asian EFL Journal, 7(1), 7-11. Lingzhu, J and Yuanyuan, Z 2010, The Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching EFL Listening, Humanising Language Teaching, 12(4): 1290-1299. Luoma, S 2004, Assessing Speaking, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lynch, T 2004, Study Listening, Michigan: CUP. Martinez, A G 2002, Authentic Materials: An Overview. [online]. Available from: http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/authenticmaterials.html . Rost, M 2002a, Teaching and Researching Listening, New York: Pearson. Rost, M 2002b, Listening in Language Learning, New York: Longman. Salehzaden, J 2006, Academic Listening Strategies: A Guide to Understanding Lectures, New York: Free Press. Tamo, D 2009, The Use of Authentic Materials in Classrooms. [online]. Available from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:CXX8xzTuuFYJ:www.lcpj.pro/skedaret/1277547736-74_pdfsam_LCPJ,%2520Per%2520shtyp.pdf+teaching+listening+using+authentic+materials%2Bdi sadvantageshl=engl=kepid=blsrcid=ADGEEShq0r-xrnzkzZaZdAcwgTWOB6JhdJwh-frcS9CetVUlkm0LC13YY9W7UIPQIVIjDOO6roC2Aj202Cxn-wogB6nZWKeyPuj5Q9qonw4BTRmybiNDDWRZCCY1NDZhqtU21E_DDJF-sig=AHIEtbQa_GO31xcOTcCCEs5ltcqrgtBsXg . Thanajaro, M 2000, Using Authentic Materials to Develop Listening Comprehension in the English as a Second Language Classroom. [online]. Available from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:zBI58TPdtioJ:202.28.199.34/multim/9974216.pdf+teaching+listening+using+authentic+materialshl=engl=kepid=blsrcid=ADGEESgHGrWX_oROwV6uj9PWwywRjUKubEdpcefZ09p8WiycxMtBMyVqxVDlzc3K4yiUhxnuC0-MXDFycepIvTBmplcfxWjZilJCH6sS4EzEh1m9TwmxbTekYllkFsYj64hpPJlaL817sig=AHIEtbT2mBXLdbsi3_95PVp7TT6_Oo1uNA . Ur, P 2005, Teaching Listening Comprehension, New York: Cambridge University Press. Wang, Q 2000, English Teaching Methodology, Beijing: Beijing Higher Education Press. Wilson, R 2004, Supporting Speaking and Listening, London: London University Press. Yingmai, M 2005, Authentic Materials in th e Course of Interpretation, US-China Foreign Language, 3(11), 69-73.

I will put it later Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

I will put it later - Essay Example She reminisced how they, as a young couple, experienced the difficulties they have been through as a consequence of their student loans and related it to how the president feels toward students’ needs and what he did to help them get better services. The content of her speech were mostly based from her familial background and experiences. The speech seems well rehearsed because even though the speaker’s own stories were told, the result was short and to the point. If the speech was done extemporaneously, there is the great possibility that Obama could have gotten around the bush but it was not. Her stories were carefully chosen and her statement were meticulously versed to sound as formal as possible but personal enough to create the drama that made her listeners agree with her thoughts and applaud her. Taking into consideration the fact that the first lady is already used to delivering speeches, one might say it could have been an impromptu. However, the speech seems to have been purposefully made to impress the audience by reaching out to them with the message that the family is not any different from all the other families represented by the participants. Moreover, the stories have been strategically arranged not just to present a smooth flow of the narration but to allow also the speaker to put in the essence of why she was telling the stories. For instance, she talked a lot about their parents so that a listener might wonder about their roles in what she was trying to tell them. Eventually, it was made clear that her speech was also a call to the people to continue working despite the hardships they experience, thinking not about their present situation but hoping that their children or grandchildren’s future would be better. The First Lady made an impressive speech. It was so effective that it accomplished its goal of having the

ILLEGAL LOGGING & DISASTERS IN THE PHILIPPINES Essay

ILLEGAL LOGGING & DISASTERS IN THE PHILIPPINES - Essay Example Humility and poverty are focused by Franciscan spirituality due to several reasons. They provide the means for understanding the real purpose of existence. Excessive material wealth leads to avarice, greed, and hatred which can cause the destruction of humanity. Thus the notion of believing in Christ helps an individual to contemplate about the Crucifixion and Resurrection. It helps the individual to recognize the unique creation of humanity that is entrusted with the task of creating a just and humane society. The Philippines is a great nation with a talented and productive workforce. It has natural resources that are being threatened by unscrupulous individuals who desire greed and profit. Illegal logging poses a serious threat to indigenous people and local habitats. It has the potential of creating natural disasters that increase misery and oppression. The goal of this paper is to apply Franciscan spiritual principles in the context of illegal logging and natural disasters in the country. It seeks to develop a collective response by focusing on the major principles of spirituality. Background Franciscan spirituality is based upon the notion of living a life that is filled with humility and poverty. It encourages the development of spirituality as the means to attaining eternal grace and union with God3. It embraces the notion of living as Christ because he is the symbol of divinity and humanity. His crucifixion enables the believer to contemplate about the changing environment. It creates an environment where success can be attained by recognizing the value of human life4. Spirituality means the application of moral principles that enable a human to live in harmony and balance with the external environment. Every action of humans must be Christian centric because ultimately it will be the criteria for success. The Philippines is a beautiful country with a hardworking and talented people5. It has numerous resources like natural habitats and environmental won ders. All of these resources are under threat from unscrupulous individuals who seek to destroy them for their own purposes. Illegal logging and natural disasters pose a threat to the integrity of the country. It is contrary to the natural values that embrace the notion of solidarity, peace, and harmony with the external environment. Franciscan spirituality advocates love for all human beings irrespective of their differences6. It embraces the notion of poverty as a means of fulfilling the covenant of Christ. It believes in the absolute supremacy of poverty because richness is really found in the spiritual domain. Application of Franciscan Spirituality Franciscan spirituality is derived from the Christian notion of perfection and sanctity because the believer is encouraged to achieve the ultimate dream of eternal union with the divine entity7. Hence it advocates the development of a spiritual framework that seeks to exert the believer to perform righteous actions to the utmost in or der to achieve sainthood. The Filipino people value the importance of sustainable living with the surrounding environment. This is because the natural environment provides food, shelter, growth, and sustenance. Hence it must be respected according to their natural values and norms. A recurrent theme of Franciscan spirituality is the emphasis towards modesty and destitution8. This is because materialistic possessions tend to create greed and avarice among