Theories on the Gender Pay Gap

Theories on the Gender Pay GapAustralian wo custody earn about 83 cents for every $1 a earth earns, according to a new report analysing the sex commit gap. Linda McDowell suggests that sexualityed assumptions view as a range of specifys on contemporary fertiliseplaces. Analyse the grammatical sexual practice even up gap, savory with the theorists you have studied this semester.INTRODUCTIONAs Linda McDowell suggests, gendered assumptions coming from heteronormative ideals and rules significantly influence contemporary utilisationplaces. This subsequently effects in the gender hire gap (1995). This paper seeks to critically analyse the influences emanating from gendered assumptions on contemporary workplaces. Additionally, the link between these assumptions and the gender redress gap will be examined. This will be executed by dint of examining the impacts of heteronormativity, which result in a never-ending binarised cycle that perpetuates the gender pay gap. Further, the possible altercates to gendered assumptions introduced by Judith Butler will be examined. However, to ensure a well-rounded analysis, the shortcomings of these challenges, and the disloyal power of hegemonic masculinity will also be discussed. WHAT IS THE GENDER PAY GAP?The gender pay gap in ordering is something thatis deemed distressingly homely, and continues to steadily control wo hands in fellowship (McDowell 2014 p.829). In Australia, the Gender pay gap refers to thediscrepancy in pay between men and women in employment. trustworthy statisticshighlight that full-time working women earn 84% of a mans pay, making the genderpay gap sit at 16%. (WGEA, 2017, p.8). From this, it is obvious that pass aroundis necessary. However, progress is non hardly slow, scarcely proving to be difficult,as the gender pay gap twenty years ago was sitting at 17%, meaning that it hastaken up to two decades to improve womens pay by a mere 1% (WGEA, 2017, p.8).This is highly declaratory of the strongh grizzly that institutionalise genderedassumptions have over the manpower, even in the twenty-first century.A key theorist on the gender pay gap, LindaMcDowell, states that women in the workplace have fought to score theright to be there at all (1995,p.80). This idea that women need to gain rightsto earn money is embedded in historical ideologies that argon non only out-dated only if still guide the lives of many women today. Early feminist interventions toimprove access to work and pay rates are still ongoing, such as the Liberal libbermovement. The Liberal Feminist movement began in the early 1800s, with the aimof providing women with rights equal to those of men in education, the workforceand in nightclub (Tong, 1989). Although some of the endeavours of the movement havebeen achieved, such as women acquiring corporate and authoritative jobs thatwere once male-dominated, there are new barriers (Bishom-Rapp, S &Sargeant, M, 2016). The gender pay gap is one of the most significant newbarriers implemented by institutions to prevent further development of genderequality in the workforce.The gender pay gap can be seen as originatingfrom the three glass hoods embedded in contemporary society, andsubsequently, contemporary workplaces (Bishom-Rapp, S & Sargeant, M,2016,p. 102). The term glass ceilings refers to the invisible barriers thatwomen tolerate as they approach the top of the corporate hierarchy. This termwas established by the Glass Ceilings Commission, which sought-after(a) to identify theglass ceiling barriers, and remove the blockages to advancement of women andminorities in employment (USDOL, 1995). The commission found there were threelevels of barriers. The first barrier is relates to prejudice and bias, comingfrom educational opportunities, or lack thereof. The second barrier is touch onwith the internal structures of a business. These structures are controllableby the business. They relate to the corporate climate and what i s referred toas pipeline barriers that come from lack of training and career development,which leads to the hinder of possible career advancement (Bishom-Rapp, S& Sargeant, M, 2016,p. 103). The final barrier is concerned with thegovernment, and the lack of law enforcement, combined with dissemination ofinformation about glass ceiling issues (Bishom-Rapp, S & Sargeant, M, 2016,p. 103). Although these three barriers cannot solely justify the widespreadhold that the gender pay gap has on contemporary workplaces, they seek topinpoint where the gender pay gap stems from, allowing work to be done inaddressing these areas. HETERONORMATIVITY IN CONTEMPORARY WORKFORCES With the fundamental aspects of the gender paygap now having been examined, the forces that perpetuate the existence of thissignificant issue inside society require analysis. The most pressing force isthe concept of heteronormativity, which is a baneful gender assumption that hasa substantial influence on contemporary workfo rces. Heteronormativity can bedefined as a body of lifestyle norms, in which people tend to reproducedistinct and complementary color genders (man and woman) (Herz & Johannson,2015, p.1011). In contemporary society, heteronormativity is deemed to keepwomen in (within its confines) andalso keeps women down, that is,subordinated (Jackson, 1999). Feminist discourse surrounding heteronormativityrose in second-wave feminism, the movement that broadened the feminist debateto address issues of contrast and knowledgeableity, as well as workplacedifficulties for women (Evans 1995). However, the origins of the normalisedheterosexual label within society can go back to the historical and culturaldepictions of men and women from the 18th century (Boe & Coykendall,2014). Thoughheteronormativity has a substantial presence within history and society, itsimpact as a gendered assumption within contemporary workforces is substantial.As heteronormativity conditions men and women to act a certain w ay according totheir sex (which is also historically and socially defined), it leaves womenboxed in. Heteronormativity and thestrict, reinforced gender binaries within society shine the systems ofoppression, and the construction of gender hierarchies (Herz & Johannson,2015, p.1011). In order to maintain a hold on society, ideas of conforming tohyper-heteronormative behaviours are reinforced by institutions within society.Subsequently, these societal influences make noise into education, family-lifeand in particular, the workforce. Although women have gained the right tocoexist with men in contemporary workplaces, strict gender binaries preventwomen from career development, strengthened abilities, and subsequently reinforcethe gender-pay gap. The work of Angela McRobbie, a key theorist in the area of gender variety in the workforce is highly pertinent to this discussion. McRobbies concept of the post-feminist masquerade highlights the harmful impact of gender assumptions in contem porary workforces (2007). McRobbie critiques the hyper-gendered performances women have been encouraged to engage in, as they place emphasis on the sexed body, and in turn gender differences. The post-feminist masquerade is a means for patriarchal law and hegemonic masculinity to gain dominance against feminism (McRobbie, 2007, p. 723). Hegemonic masculinity refers to the configuration of gender practice, which embodies the currently accepted fare to the problem of legitimacy of patriarchy which guarantees the dominant position of men, and the subordination of women (Bartholomaeus, 2013, p.280). This is done through encouraging women to engage in feminine consumer culture, so as to reinscribe their womanhood in the workplace (McRobbie, 2007). These hyper-gendered performances include subscribing to common feminine practices, such as wearing tight skirts, high heels and a face full of make up to assert their muliebrity (McRobbie, 2007, p.722). As women are encouraged to perform hy per-femininity, institutions are able to reinforce fear of retribution from abandoning heteronormativity in the workplace. This forces women back within the unbendable gender binary, creating an even greater divide between men and women in the workspace, ultimately perpetuating the gender pay gap. THE LINK TO THE GENDER PAY GAP AND THE REPERCUSSIONS base on the analysis to date, the harmful nature of gender assumptions in the workplace has been examined. However, the way that these gendered assumptions impact the gender pay gap requires concentrated analysis. Gender assumptions have a direct link to thegender pay gap, as they dictate the field of work that many women are in. Womenare significantly overrepresented in the last(a) paying occupations, asfemale-dominated jobs pay far less than male-dominated jobs (Ting, 2017).Feminised jobs include those relating to care-taking or domestic tasks, such asnursing, cleaning and childcare. These sex-segregated jobs are clearlyindicative of the roles ascribed to women within heterosexual discourse. These feminised jobs stems from what is knownas the caregiver manakin. This model is a historical regime that took theinherent caregiver role of women, and limited their employment to areasrelating to this heteronormative ideal (McRobbie, 2007). As more women are found in jobs that abide bythe caregiver model, the influence of this troublesome ancient structure todayis evident (McRobbie, 2007, p.730)However, this caregiver model cannot explainthe fact that the gender pay gap in Australia has been found to exist in morethan 1,000 occupations (Ting, 2017). This is due to the fact that men inworkplaces are promoted into higher positions rather than their femalecounterparts (Jaffee, 1989, p.377). This is problematic, as there is somewhat a double-disadvantage coming from thesejobs. Women in feminised occupations are twice disadvantaged- first by beingin a female field, and second by being a woman in that field, since men mak emore than women, even in female handle(Bishom-Rapp & Sargeant, 2016, p. 137).Additionally, women in corporate jobs face vertical segregation. Vertical segregation refers to the exclusion of women from organisational positions of autonomy and authority, due to the sex differences within workplaces (Jaffee, 1989, p.387). Thus, the gender pay gap not only stems from the one area of feminised jobs, but also from a lack of career advancement that is within the power of organisations in society. According to Wolf and Fligstein, the sexual differences in power in the work lopting are an important factor generating inequality in earnings between men and women (1979, 235). This highlights how ideas about the femininity of women baffle contemporary workforce standards, as women are expected to perform work according to their performance of heterosexuality. Further, the long-term disadvantages that comefrom gendered assumptions and the subsequent gender pay gap will be criticallyanalysed. Not only does the gender pay gap lead to disadvantage for women in social,financial and personal situations, but also leads to lifetime disadvantage. Lifetimedisadvantage refers to the factors that lead to the retirement ills of manywomen (Bishom-Rapp & Sargeant, 2016, p. 190). Thatis, the hazards that women face from being unequally paid. As women go intoretirement, they are at risk of experiencing the critical impact of the genderpay gap. Women subsequently earn less over their lifetime, which results inlower superannuation, and a risk of poverty in old age. In 2012, 21.7% of womenaged over 65 were at risk of poverty, whereas only 16.3% of men were likely toexperience poverty (Bishom-Rapp & Sargeant, 2016, p. 116). Genderinequality in the workforce not only reflects current social position and powerinequalities, but it also leads to detrimental outcomes of lifetimedisadvantage for women. TACKLING THE GENDER BINARY Although gendered assumptions continue to driveworkplaces, there a re ways to tackle this blatant discrimination that womenface in employment. According to leading gender theorist, Judith Butler, thereis a means to challenge heteronormativity, which forms the foundation for thegender pay gap. Butler believes that gender is reiterated through regulatorypractices, and is culturally constructed through the heterosexual matrix (Butler,1990, p.9). The heterosexual matrix refers to the re-stabilisation of genderthrough women repeatedly engaging in feminised behaviours and appearances(Butler, 1990). Therefore, the sexed body only gains significance from itsconstant reification and institutionalised endorsement within society. As thegender binary requires engagement by society, an inherent instability withinthis social construct can be made out (Butler, 1990, p11). Because of this, women are able to exploitgendered assumptions through their constant backup, as it becomesobvious to those looking to challenge it. Women in the workforce have alreadytaken cha rge in this area, as the overall gender pay gap in full-timeemployment decreased in 2015 to 2016 (WGEA, 2017,p.15).By viewing sex and gender as something culturally, historically and socially constructed, society will be able to define themselves with their own limitations and freedoms by challenging these constructed ideals. In particular, the feminist movement will make significant headway in this area through challenging normative heterosexuality. This effect will reverberate in the workforce, as the structures seeking to restrain women from challenging hegemonic masculinity will destabilise. The gender pay gap, in particular, has improved among men and women in trades including machinery operating and building, decreasing by 4% in terms of total remuneration between 2015 and 2016 (WGEA, 2017, p. 16). This is indicative of the progress being made by women in challenging the preconceived capabilities of their bodies. By going beyond the behaviours of gender that limit their capabi lities, they are able to challenge both gender constructs and inequality in the workforce.AsMcDowell suggests, womens sexed bodies are threatening in the workplace forthe very reason that they are not meant to be there -They challenge the orderof things (1995,p.80). Not only have women challenged order through enteringthe workforce they have also challenged the very incorporated foundation of theorder. This provides women with the meansto break through the metaphorical glass ceilings that limit equality in theworkplace. Additionally, if women persevered with obtaining both equality andequity, it would liberate not only women but also human personality from thestraitjacket of gender (Herz & Johannson, 2015, p.1010). Therefore, byfurthering the feminist movement, those reinforcing hegemonic masculinity andthe institutions that enforce gendered assumptions will be disembodied. Thisincludes the governing of each individual of society through the heterosexualmatrix. THE PARADOX THAT IS GENDER EQUALITYIn current gender studies, there are now waysto challenge gender assumptions that feed the gender pay gap. However, thegender pay gap is not in steady decline, and is expected to hold its position,if not rise in areas of managerial roles (WGEA, 2017, p. 6). As individuals areprovided with the previously mentioned means to challenge the reification ofgender binaries, the institutional stronghold over sex and gender conceptionstightens, finding new ways to reduce these challenges. By virtue of the fact that women are enteringthe workforce and fighting for equal pay, hegemonic masculinity is weakened.Because of this, institutions use any perceived gender equality improvements toset the fight back, rather than enhance it. This can be seen through the concept of attribution of capacity enunciated by Angela McRobbie (2007). This attribution of capacity refers to the freedom given to women in the workforce. In a post-feminist context, women are provided with roles of accoun tability and autonomy, with the expectation of embodying a strong, can-do attitude to work. However, McRobbie argues that these improvements are instead reinscription of hegemonic masculinity, leading to drawbacks in the fight for equal pay. Women are invited to recognise themselves as privileged subjects and are expected to be grateful for achieving (with a fight) the fundamental human right of equality (McRobbie, 2007, p, 722). As institutions have reach this control over who enters the workforce, they apply new barriers under the faade of equality. Women are now expected to be accomplished subjects who can come forward, however this is only on the condition that feminism fades away despite neither equality nor equity being achieved (McRobbie, 2007, p.720). Therein lies what Raewyn Connell refers to as the patriarchal dividend, which is the advantage given to men as a group from maintaining inequality within society (2009). Monetary income from the workforce is just one of the be nefits, in addition to respect, safety, institutional power and autonomy. (Connell, 2009, p.142). From the reinforcement of hegemony, the patriarchal dividend and gender binaries within society as a response to feminist movements, women are once again placed back into the labels and categories that they first sought to escape from, subverting years of feminist work. Additionally, the critique of the VirginAtlantic 25 years Still red-hot highlights the drawback that women face inthe postfeminist struggle for equality (Duffy et al., 2016). The obligate critiquesthe marketing strategies used to evoke idealised gender appearances in apostmodern context in order to facilitate the perpetuation of gender binaries. The advertisement ultimately utilises good old-fashioned sexism whilesimultaneously distancing themselves from it, which suggests that theinstitutions that seek to retain a hold over postmodern feminism have utilisedthe newfound freedom of women and bent it to their will, making women slaves intheir own emancipation (Duffy et al., 2016, p. 266). CONCLUSIONUltimately, by examining the structures within the contemporary workforce, the gender pay gap has been critically analysed. By examining the institutionalised gender binaries entrenched within society, the root causes of the gender pay gap have been established and evaluated. The analysis reveals that through heteronormativity and the enforcement of gender binaries, the gender pay gap is perpetually reified, with lifelong effects. Although Butler provides an outlet for change through challenging these binaries, the institutional stronghold over the sexed body and its link to societal outcomes proves to be rigidly in place, as discussed by a key theorist studied within the unit, Angela McRobbie.REFERENCE LIST1. Bartholomaeus,C (2013) Colluding With or ambitious Hegemonic Masculinity.Australian FeministStudies, vol. 28, pp. 279-293. 2. Bishom-Rapp, S & Sargeant, M (2016) Lifetime disadvantage, discriminati on and the gendered workforce. Cambridge University press. 3. Boe, A & Coykendall, A (2014) Heteronormativity in Eighteenth-century Literature and Culture. Ashgate publications.4. Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble Feminism and the corruptness of Identity, New York Routledge, pp.1-19.5. Connell,R (2009). Gender Politics.Gender. Pp.13651.Cambridge Polity Press.6. Duffy, K, Hancock, P, & Tyler, M (2016) Stillred-hot? Postfeminism and gender subjectivity in the airline industry. Gender, work and organization, vol. 24,pp. 260-273.7. Evans, J (1995) Feminist theory today An introduction to second-wave feminism. Sagepublications.8. Herz, M & Johansson, T (2015). The normativity of the concept of heteronormativity. Journal of Homosexuality. Pp. 1009- 10209. 9. Jackson, S (1999) Heterosexuality in question. Sage publications. 10.Jaffee, D (1989) Gender inequality in workplace autonomy and authority. Social science quarterly, vol. 70, pp.375-39011.McDowell, L (1995) Body workheterosexual gen der performances in city workplaces. (Routledge)12.McDowell, L (2014) Gender, work employment and society Feminist reflectionson community and change. Work,employment & society. pp.825-837.13. McRobbie, A (2007) Top Girls? Youngwomen and the post-feminist sexual contract. Cultural Studies. pp.718-737.14. Ting, I 2017. The gender income gap in more than 1000 occupations, in one chart, The Age. Viewed 22 April 2017.